Alberta Oil Sand Pollution Impacts on Local Indigenous Communities

2024

By Corrine Yu

The Alberta oil sands, located primarily in the northeastern part of the province, are one of the largest crude oil deposits in the world. These oil sands are an important driver of economic growth in Canada (approximately one trillion US dollars) and provide a significant number of jobs (approximately 205,000) (Alberta Energy Regulator, 2024). However, the environmental, social, and cultural impacts of oil sands development are far-reaching, particularly for the Indigenous communities living in and around the Athabasca region (Baker & Westman, 2018). This report explores the multifaceted impacts of Alberta's oil sands development on Fort McKay's Indigenous communities, ranging from local environmental contamination to food contamination and impacts on livelihoods and culture. The report provides an in-depth analysis of environmental, cultural, and socio-economic impacts, utilizing a comprehensive review of existing studies, government and industry reports, and the Indigenous knowledge system (Baker & Westman, 2018).

Photo by NinaHenry on Getty Images/iStockphoto

Photo by NinaHenry on Getty Images/iStockphoto

Oil sands, as the name suggests, are a mixture of sand, clay, water, and bitumen, a dense, viscous crude oil that requires heating or dilution to extract and process (Oil Sands Environmental Impacts, 2024).

Oil sands typically contain 55-80% sand and clay, 2-15% water, and 4-18% bitumen (Alberta Energy Regulator, 2015). The Athabasca region is the largest and most developed, producing approximately 2.7 million barrels of crude bitumen per day, which is expected to increase to 3.4 million barrels per day by 2030. Total production from the Alberta oil sands is expected to reach 628,000 cubic meters per day by 2033 (Alberta Energy Regulator, 2024).

In the Athabasca oil sands operating area, there are two primary methods of extraction.

The first is the open pit method, which is used to extract deposits up to 75 meters from the surface and involves removing overburden, excavating the oil sands, and separating the bitumen at the mining facility. Environmental impacts include deforestation, habitat loss, high water use, and greenhouse gas emissions (Gosselin et al., 2010).
The second is in-situ mining techniques, where in-situ mining methods such as Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) and Circulating Steam Stimulation (CSS) can be used for deeper deposits. These techniques heat the bitumen for extraction by injecting steam. In-situ mining methods have less impact on the surface, but they are energy-intensive and may contaminate groundwater (Oil Sands Environmental Impacts, 2024).

Figure Shows the Simple schematic of the localized oil sands, created by Corrine Yu, 2024.

the location of three main oil sands deposits in the Province of Alberta. Created by Corrine Yu 2024, using Google Maps and ArcGIS Pro.

Map of the study site, shaded area is 174D under the jurisdiction of the Fort McKay First Nation (image courtesy of Google Maps)

Study Site

The Athabasca oil sands region is located in northeastern Alberta, Canada, and is one of the three largest oil sands regions in the province, along with Cold Lake and Peace River. Covering an area of approximately 93,000 square kilometers, it is the largest and most developed oil sands region and is known for its rich bitumen reserves. The region is characterized by intertwined boreal forests and wetlands, with the Athabasca River running through it, providing an important source of water for industrial operations and local communities (Alberta Energy Regulator, 2015).

The Fort McKay First Nation is an indigenous community located in the heart of the Athabasca oil sands region. The community is comprised primarily of Cree and Dene people and has a population of approximately 900. The Fort McKay First Nation has a rich cultural heritage and a deep connection to the land, relying on it for traditional activities such as hunting, fishing, trapping and gathering (Behr et al., 2019; Baker & Westman, 2018).

The study site encompasses Fort McKay Reserve 174, located in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region in Northern Alberta, Canada (Area Redevelopment and Area Structure Plans, 2017). The area is taking 3106.70 hectares. It focuses on areas surrounding Fort McKay First Nations (population 900) impacted by the Athabasca oil sands development. This region is chosen for its ecological significance, the intensity of oil sand operations, and the presence of Indigenous communities with longstanding ties to the land (Behr et al., 2019).

Environmental Impacts

The extraction and processing of oil sands in the Athabasca region has far-reaching environmental impacts, affecting air quality, water resources, wildlife, and entire ecosystems.

Air Quality

Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Oil sands operations are a significant source of greenhouse gases (GHG), primarily carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). These emissions result from the combustion of fuels during the mining process, particularly the generation of steam in in-situ mining methods and emissions from tailings ponds. High levels of greenhouse gas emissions contribute to global climate change and affect local air quality. As of 2022, the Government of Alberta claims to have reduced methane emissions from the Athabasca oil sands by 45% (Gonzalez Moguel et al., 2022; Alberta Energy Regulator, 2024).

Air Pollutant

In addition to greenhouse gases, oil sands activities release other harmful air pollutants, including sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and particulate matter (PM), including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals. These pollutants cause significant environmental and health issues. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides contribute to acid rain, which damages vegetation and aquatic ecosystems (Oil Sands Environmental Impacts, 2024). Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter (PM) can cause respiratory illnesses and other health problems, including cancer, in local communities (Davidson & Spink, 2018; Yousif et al., 2023). Concentrations of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides increase with oil sands mining, and exceedances occur from time to time. Particulate matter levels can exceed limits and be deposited more frequently during the winter months, while VOCs are found in higher concentrations around tailings impoundments as well as in the groundwater adjacent to these impoundments (Davidson & Spink, 2018; Moussa et al., 2021).

Water

Water Consumption
Mining and processing bitumen requires large quantities of water, primarily sourced from the Athabasca River. Open-pit mining operations consume approximately 3.2 barrels of water per barrel of bitumen extracted, while in-situ mining techniques consume approximately 3.4 barrels of water (Oil Sands Environmental Impacts, 2024). This high level of water consumption depletes local water resources and affects aquatic ecosystems. While efforts are made to control the average barrel of water used, there is no guarantee that the total water usage will not increase as oil sands operations expand. A 32% reduction in river flow has been detected in the Athabasca watershed near Fort McKay, raising concerns about the potential decline in future water levels due to heavy water use (Aryal et al., 2024).

Water Pollution
Tailings ponds used to store the by-products of bitumen mining pose a serious risk of water pollution. These ponds contain water, sand, clay, residual bitumen, and various chemicals, which can enter the water column through settling. The main contaminants include heavy metals, PAHs, and naphthenic acids. Heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, and mercury can leach into groundwater and surface water, posing serious health risks to humans and wildlife. In the Athabasca River near Fort McKay, most metal concentrations are below CCME thresholds, except for chromium. Heavy metal exceedances are more common during the flood season, and while concentrations are relatively low for the rest of the year, exceedances of mercury during floods can pose a health risk to Fort McKay residents (Dastoor et al., 2021; Brook et al., 2019).

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), produced by incomplete combustion, are persistent in the environment and can accumulate in the food chain, affecting aquatic organisms and potentially causing long-term health problems. While PAH concentrations are relatively high in snowmelt, they tend to be lower in the Athabasca River as they are diluted, though higher concentrations persist in groundwater near tailings ponds (Evans et al., 2019). Naphthenic acids, which are highly toxic to aquatic organisms, can disrupt the reproductive systems of fish and other species, leading to declining fish populations and ecosystem imbalances. While concentrations of naphthenic acids are low in the rivers, they are very high in groundwater near tailings ponds and may eventually flow into the river with groundwater (Kavanagh et al., 2009).

Wildlife and Biodiversity

Contaminants in wildlife
Contaminants from oil sands operations can accumulate in the tissues of fish, birds, and mammals. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of contaminants such as heavy metals and PAHs can lead to reproductive failure, neurological damage, and death of affected species. Notably, elevated levels of mercury and PAHs have been found in fish and bird populations in the region (Evans et al., 2019; Hebert et al., 2013).

Biodiversity is affected
Open-pit mining can lead to deforestation and soil disturbance, destroying habitats and reducing biodiversity. The construction of roads, pipelines, and other infrastructure can destroy landscapes and disrupt the migration patterns and breeding grounds of various species. In the Athabasca region, the most affected species are native birds, and mammal biodiversity is lower than expected. Despite contamination, berry plants maintain their biological integrity (Oil Sands Environmental Impacts, 2024; Behr et al., 2019).

Soil disturbance
Mining processes, especially open pit mining, disturb large areas of land. This leads to soil erosion, loss of soil fertility and changes in land-use patterns. Reclamation is required by law, but restoring land to its original condition is a slow and challenging process, and despite attempts at reclamation, 90% of the land is still disturbed by oil sands mining, and of the 85,000 hectares mined, only 103 hectares are recognized as well restored Santana-Martinez et al., 2024; Oil S(ands Environmental Impacts, 2024)..

The environmental impacts of the Alberta oil sands are widespread and multifaceted, affecting air quality, water resources, wildlife, and soil health. Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive, sustainable measures to mitigate negative impacts while balancing the economic benefits of oil sands development.

Impacts on Fort McKay First Nation Grouops

The Fort McKay First Nation faces a wide range of multifaceted impacts from the development of Alberta's oil sands. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive and sustainable approach that balances economic development with the protection of environmental and cultural resources.

1. Culture and Traditional Practices

The Fort McKay First Nation people have a deep cultural connection to their land, which they rely on for traditional activities such as hunting, fishing, and gathering. Land degradation severely limits these activities and threatens cultural heritage and identity (Baker & Westman, 2018). Younger generations, in particular, have lost the opportunity to learn and practice their cultural heritage on their traditional lands. For example, with the expansion of the oil sands industry along the Athabasca River, some river channels have been encroached upon, resulting in the loss of waters used for traditional fishing by the Fort McKay First Nation (Behr et al., 2019)

2. Health and Environmental Issues

Traditional food sources such as fish, game, and plants are contaminated with heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and while there is not enough literature to prove a definitive link between these contaminants and the Fort McKay First Nations getting sick, these substances do pose a threat to human health (Evans et al., 2019; Dastoor et al., 2021). While the government and some researchers have suggested that PAH concentrations in fish caught in the Athabasca River do not pose a health concern, community members report changes in the taste and quality of the fish, and they do not feel that the natural creek water is safe to drink. Mercury in meat exceeds guidelines, and while heavy metal concentrations in berries and plants do not exceed the guidelines, the Fort McKay First Nations people are still concerned about the potential long-term health effects of consuming contaminated food and water (Baker, 2018; Shotyk et al., 2016). At the same time, air, water, and noise pollution have also inconvenienced the lives of the Fort McKay First Nation, with the Government of Alberta receiving a total of 56 complaints about environmental pollution between 2010 and 2014 (Spangelo et al., 2016).

3. Socio-Economic Impacts

While the oil sands industry provides employment opportunities and economic benefits, it also leads to increased costs of living and social challenges. The shift from traditional livelihoods to industrial work has had an impact on community cohesion and cultural preservation (Baker & Westman, 2018). The loss of access to traditional lands has meant that the Fort McKay First Nation has had to abandon its traditional business model of selling animal pelts and medicinal herbs, as well as fishing. Young people went out to work and lost the opportunity to learn and pass on their culture. Traditional languages are also disappearing as they are integrated into Western society (Parlee, 2015). At the same time, unemployment remains high in jobs requiring specialized skills, and many community members are employed in low-paying, labor-intensive jobs. This has created a new phenomenon of "resource curse" and "industrial genocide" (Huseman & Short, 2012; Parlee, 2015).

Conflicts between Western Perspectives and Fort McKay First Nation

The conflict between Western/government perspectives and the Fort McKay First Nations highlights the need for a more balanced approach to oil sands development. Genuine collaboration, inclusive decision-making, and the integration of Indigenous knowledge with the scientific method are necessary to ensure a sustainable and equitable outcome for all stakeholders.

Western Perspectives

Government and industry stakeholders often emphasize the economic benefits of oil sands development, such as job creation, energy security, and contributions to the national and regional economy. They emphasize regulatory compliance and technological advances aimed at reducing environmental impacts, including improved extraction techniques, enhanced reclamation efforts, and better emission controls (Government of Canada, 2022; Alberta Energy Outlook, 2024). Official reports tend to downplay long-term and cumulative environmental impacts, arguing that adverse effects are minimal and can be controlled through existing regulations and technological solutions (Responsible Actions, 2009; Oil Sands Environmental Impacts, 2024).

Indigenous Communities Perspective

Fort McKay First Nations place great value on cultural heritage that is closely tied to the land. The loss of traditional lands and practices as a result of industrial activities is seen as a direct threat to their cultural identity and heritage (Baker & Westman, 2018; Behr et al., 2019). Indigenous communities report severe and ongoing environmental degradation, including water and air pollution, habitat destruction, and biodiversity loss, which directly affects their health, lifestyles, and traditional activities (Westman & Joly, 2019). Industrial pollutants contaminate traditional food and water sources, and concerns about their safety are not adequately addressed in government and industry reports, leading to health concerns among community members (Baker, 2018; Edwards, 2014).

A major cause of conflict is the marginalization of Indigenous perspectives and knowledge in decision-making processes. Fort McKay First Nation people found that their observations and experiences are not adequately represented or prioritized in environmental assessment and regulatory decision-making, leading to a lack of trust in official reports and a preference to rely on their own observations and traditional knowledge (Behr et al., 2019; Parlee, 2015). At the same time, the government's reneging on earlier land treaties has led to the further loss of traditional lands available to the Fort McKay First Nations, which is disrespectful and neglectful (Birrell, 2022). As the Fort McKay First Nations increasingly began to call out and pay attention to their rights, the government began to advocate for a more inclusive decision-making process that recognizes and incorporates Indigenous rights and knowledge and seeks to meaningfully participate in planning, management, and policy development related to land and resource use (Natcher et al., 2020).

The community believes that collaborative environmental monitoring programs that combine Indigenous knowledge with Western science are essential. Indigenous people have detailed observational skills and historical knowledge that can deepen their understanding of ecological changes and impacts (Baker & Westman, 2018). In addition, strong legal and policy frameworks that recognize and uphold Indigenous rights, including ensuring free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) for activities affecting Indigenous lands, are essential for effective conflict resolution (Chima Onyeneke et al., 2024). Building trust requires transparent communication and genuine engagement with Indigenous communities, recognizing the validity of Indigenous knowledge, and comprehensively addressing community concerns (Parlee, 2015).

Recommendations and cooperation strategies between the Government and Fort McKay First Nation

Photo by Karoline Stk on Unsplash

Indigenous knowledge systems differ fundamentally from Western science's approach to understanding and interacting with the environment. Indigenous knowledge systems take a holistic view, emphasizing the relationship between plants, animals, humans, and the natural world; in addition, Indigenous knowledge incorporates cultural and spiritual beliefs, as well as customs and rituals closely associated with the land, and emphasizes respect for, and management and sustainable use of, natural resources (Wilcox et al., 2023). The scientific method, on the other hand, is at the heart of Western science and involves the formulation of hypotheses, experimentation, observation, and analysis to draw conclusions, aiming to eliminate bias and ensure rigorous testing of theories (Miriti et al., 2022).

Recommendations

1. Recognize and Protect Indigenous Rights: The government should formally recognize the Fort McKay First Nation’s right to self-determination, ensuring that they have a decisive role in approving or rejecting projects that impact their traditional lands and resources. This includes upholding the principle of free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) in all relevant decisions (Birrell, 2022).

2. Integrate Indigenous Knowledge into Environmental Management: Indigenous knowledge should be systematically incorporated into environmental management practices, including environmental assessments, ongoing monitoring, and reclamation projects. This ensures that cultural values and traditional ecological knowledge are respected and utilized to achieve sustainable and culturally appropriate outcomes (Wilcox et al., 2023; Miriti et al., 2022).

3. Strengthen Environmental Regulations and Reclamation Efforts: The government must enhance environmental regulations to address the cumulative and long-term impacts of oil sand development. This includes implementing stricter controls on pollution, ensuring that reclamation efforts are thorough and culturally sensitive, and aligning these efforts with the Fort McKay First Nation’s vision for restoring their traditional lands (Santana-Martinez et al., 2024; Oil Sands Environmental Impacts, 2024).

Strategies for cooperation

1. Establish a Joint Management Council: Create a council that includes representatives from the Fort McKay First Nation, government, and industry to ensure collaborative decision-making on land use, environmental protection, and resource management. This council should operate on the basis of consensus, giving equal weight to the perspectives and priorities of the Fort McKay community (Natcher et al., 2020).

2. Develop Co-Management Agreements: Formulate agreements that provide the Fort McKay First Nation with shared responsibility in the management of natural resources within their traditional territories. These agreements should clearly outline the roles and responsibilities of each party, ensuring that Indigenous voices are central in all decisions affecting their lands and that there are mechanisms for resolving conflicts (Chima Onyeneke et al., 2024).

3. Support and Fund Community-Led Environmental Monitoring: The government should empower the Fort McKay community to lead environmental monitoring programs, providing the necessary resources and support. These programs should focus on key environmental and cultural concerns, such as air and water quality, wildlife health, and the protection of culturally significant sites. Community-led monitoring will ensure that the Fort McKay First Nation has real-time data and input into the ongoing management of their environment (Baker, 2020; Evans et al., 2019).

As the oil sands are being developed on an increasingly large scale in the Athabasca oil sands near Fort McKay, environmental concerns are pressing, and the impacts on the First Nations of Fort McKay are becoming apparent. Balancing the economic benefits of oil sands development with the environmental and cultural well-being of Indigenous communities requires a shift to more sustainable practices and true collaboration. By combining indigenous knowledge systems with scientific methods, stakeholders can work to mitigate adverse impacts and create a more equitable future for all participants.

Audience：

1. Government Officials and Policymakers:

This includes federal, provincial, and local government representatives responsible for environmental regulation, Indigenous affairs, and economic development. They will be interested in understanding the impacts of oil sands development to inform policy decisions and regulatory actions.

2. Indigenous Communities and Leaders:

The report will be particularly useful to the Fort McKay First Nation and other Indigenous groups affected by oil sands development. They will use it to advocate for their rights, protect their lands, and engage with the government and industry better.

Here is the link for the report if you are interested in this topic

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